Family Communication Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Family Communication - Assignment Example Second level is associated which implies that the relatives are encountering some closeness with feeling of having a place and dedication. Thirdly, attachment is a kind of relationship which includes relatives are making progress toward passionate closeness, reliability, and fellowship with the accentuation on some distinction. Enmeshed is the last degree of family correspondence which implies that the relatives are extremely close, faithful, and ward and there is practically no distinction (Kathleen M. Galvin, 2012). My mother and father have been having a decent connection among themselves and furthermore with different family members. One day Mr. James my siblings educator returned home and revealed that my sibling Vin was not going to classes and had was in every case late in school. My mom uncovered this data to father implying that she had great self-divulgence qualities. Also, my mom addressed my sibling with respect to the issue while we were taking dinner. She disclosed to my sibling that instruction was significant and it characterized ones future. This shows my mom has great listening aptitudes. To demonstrate that my sibling was a decent a decent audience, he took a gander at my mother. He reacted to my mother’s directions by gesturing his head which is a positive criticism for somebody with great listening abilities. Since this day my sibling has never missed

There is no set topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

There is no set subject - Essay Example Goodman Brown’s choice to go to the woods and meet with the fallen angel is, from one viewpoint, enchanted and, then again, bold. The significant worry of the man isn't simply the reality of meeting, yet the idea of how others would consider him after that. Strict convictions of Goodman Brown are fascinating from mental point of view, since this confidence depends on his conviction that individuals around him are additionally strict. Shockingly, protagonist’s confidence is excessively powerless and can be effectively impacted by others. In this manner, when a man becomes acquainted with that his nearby individuals like dad, spouse, granddad, Goody Cloyse, Deacon Gookin, the clergyman are in kinship with fallen angel, he decides to join the larger part also. Individuals who joined fallen angel used to be devout and regarded in their town. In this way, Goodman Brown doesn't address legitimacy of his choice concerning strict and confidence matters. The hero just does likew ise as everybody he knows well. Being intrinsically debased Goodman Brown is bound to lose his guiltlessness, which is an image of offense from the God’s world into the universe of fiend. From the earliest starting point it was Goodman Brown’s decision to go to the woods and meet with the fallen angel. Nobody advises him to do as such. Such a request for occasions is extremely advantageous to the demon and he even encourages Goodman Brown in his choice.

Understanding Vygotskys Social Development Theory

Understanding Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory Man is a social being. This basically means that he is unable to survive and thrive on his own, because it is in his makeup and nature to be with others â€" to interact with them, connect with them, and even develop relationships. This nature of his is what leads him to seek a sense of belonging, and partake of society.Aristotle even quoted, “Man is by nature a social animal,” and that “society is something that precedes the individual.” The implication behind his words is that, anyone who is unable to naturally act socially is not human. This has been interpreted in several ways, and one of these interpretations equate humanity to the need to connect and interact with others in a social setting.Several other notable thinkers came forward even long after the Greek philosopher had passed on, each with their own theories on human development and how the social factor figures into it. Their social learning theories have become the foundation of several disciplines and fields of study in psychology.One of the most oft-discussed fields is cognitive development, which refers to the development of a person from infancy and childhood, through adolescence and adulthood, in terms of his thought processes, problem-solving, and decision-making. © Shutterstock.com | Rawpixel.comOne of these thinkers was Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, whose major contributions were his theories on social learning and how it impacts the development of a child. His thoughts and ideas on the subject were embodied in what is now known as the Social Development Theory.THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORYVygotsky’s name may not be as recognizable as, say, Piaget, Pavlov and Freud, who were his peers when he developed his theory, but ask anyone studying psychology and they are bound to know who he is. He may have died at the relatively young age of 37 in 1934, and it may have taken around 4 decades before his ideas were formally introduced and incorporated in psychology curricula across universities in the Western world, but they have since become integral to the study of psychology, particularly in the field of educational and early childhood psychology.Among his contemporaries, the one whose theories were scrutinized closely in comparison with Vyg otsky’s was Jean Piaget, a Swiss child psychologist that came up with his Theory of Cognitive Development. We will try to point out the differences between these two psychologists’ works as we move on with the discussion.Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory, or SDT, introduced two major principles:Cognitive development is limited up to a certain extent or within a certain range, at any given age of the individual; andAn individual’s full cognitive development requires social interaction.These principles are encapsulated in three theories or themes: Social Interaction, The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).I. Social InteractionKey concept #1 Social interaction plays a central role in cognitive development.It is ingrained in every individual, even as a child, to seek meaning in everything. Curiosity sets in early on during childhood, and you probably noticed how, even from a very young age, a person starts asking questions. He will be lo oking around, wide-eyed, wonder and interest in his observant eyes. It is safe to say that the individual has started the process of looking for or “making meaning”. And, in order to find or make that meaning, he has to look around him, be involved, and play an active role on the “road to discovery”.Cognitive â€" and human â€" development, according to Vygotsky, is a result of a “dynamic” interaction between the individual and the society. This dynamic relationship denotes a relationship of mutuality between the two. Just as society has an impact on the individual, the individual also has an impact on society.Children are unable to learn and develop if they are removed from society, or are forbidden to interact with it. Take a look at the typical development of a child: his first teachers were his parents, who taught him his first words and guided him as he took his first steps, or as he went “potty”. On play dates, he learned how to play with other kids his age, and slowly built a bond with one or two kids that he ended up being the closest to.On the first day of school, he met his teacher, and several other teachers in the following years. The process of learning also required him to work closely with other people besides his teachers, such as older students and classmates.Through these social learning experiences, he was able to gradually develop and grow. And that brings us to the next concept of the Social Interaction. Key concept #2 Social learning precedes development.Vygotsky claims that a child will not be able to develop unless he undergoes or experiences social learning first. He identified two areas, or levels, where the functions in a child’s cultural development, appear in:Social level, or interpsychological. The functions first appear between individuals first. This is where the person will have to interact, connect and reach out to other people. This is the level where social learning takes place.Individual level, or intrapsyc hological. This is the area within the child or the individual. Once he has passed the social level, where he acquired social learnings, the functions will appear a second time and, this time, more developed and thus, leading to cognitive development.To put it plainly, without learning, there is no way that that individual will be able to function and become fully developed.However, that does not mean that people are born with absolutely zero abilities. Vygotsky is quick to point out that everyone is born with basic or elementary functions or abilities that will get them started on the road to their intellectual development.The elementary mental functions include those that come by naturally with birth and growth, without influence by an external stimulus. In other words, these capacities are not learned, involuntary, and often do not really require any thought on the part of the individual. Vygotsky even went so far as saying that most of these elementary mental functions are acqui red by a child through geneticsExamples of elementary or lower mental functions (LMFs) are:Sensation. A child does not need to be taught that something is hot, cold, sweet, or bitter. His senses are will automatically deliver those messages to his brain, so he can react accordingly.Hunger. There are bodily processes that are beyond a person’s control, and one of them is hunger. When an infant is hungry, he is hungry, and so he will show it by crying or acting restless. He does not need to be told that he is hungry since his body will manifest the fact.Memory. To be more specific, natural or unmediated memory. Young children are able to immediately commit things to memory in a natural manner. A baby will instantly recognize the sound of his mother’s voice, or the taste of baby food. But that’s it. He won’t necessarily be able to associate â€" or subsequently recognize any association â€" the sound of his mother’s voice to those times that she sung him a lullaby to sleep, an d he isn’t likely to identify that baby food to be the one that he really likes to eat.As the child grows older, and as his social learning increased through more social interactions, his elementary mental functions evolved into his “higher mental functions” or HMF. Unlike elementary mental functions, they are stimulated. They are taught, and they are learned in social settings or environments, and they often come with social meanings.The given examples include:Language. As a child develops, so does his capacity for languages. The need to communicate to people around him â€" whether to express his discontent about something or to inform his parents that he is hungry or he has to go potty â€" will spur the need to learn languages. As he grows older and undergoes a multitude of other social processes, language learning will also advance, as well as his thought processes.Memory. This refers to what comes after the child has gone past the natural memory stage. This time, his memor y can be cultivated and controlled, and he now has access to memory aids and tools. He is now able to make the relevant associations, and he can pick the things that he deems must be memorized, using these tools. Examples of these so-called tools of intellectual adaptation, or tools that allow children to use their elementary mental functions more effectively, include mind maps, memory mnemonics, note-taking, and other visual cues and aids.Voluntary attention. You may have heard toddlers and small children being described as having short attention span. That is because, at that age, their thought processes aren’t stable enough to sustain concentration on one particular object or thought. Sure, they can focus on one thing at one time, but they won’t really know what to do with that ability, and so they turn on to something else. Social learnings will arm the child with the ability of focus and concentration, and the ability to figure out what to do with it. He gets to decide whic h objects, actions or thoughts to focus on. Full cognitive development means that, eventually, he will be capable of selective or focused attention and shared or divided attention, and sustain it.Perception. Through sensing, a child is able to recognize a sensory stimuli… but it ends there. His lack of perception skills will render him unable to interpret the meaning or significance behind it. Social interactions help the child’s level of perception, increasing his awareness and capacity to understand why things are as they are.The learning that Vygotsky referred to does not point to a specific type or standard, because he also acknowledged how cultural differences can cause variability when it comes to learning and how culture, in general, is influential and powerful in shaping or molding one’s cognition.Key concept #3 Language accelerates cognitive development.It is a given that language is very important in any social interaction, since it is the primary medium of communica tion in any social setting. But that is not the only reason why language plays a very important role in an individual’s cognitive development.First, let us take a look at the three stages of speech development, according to Vygotsky.Stage 1 â€" Social or External SpeechThis covers the preverbal stage, usually under the age of three, when the child is still unable to transcribe his thoughts in complete thought messages. His thoughts are pretty simple, and his emotions basic, and there is no intellectual or thinking exercise involved.However, despite that, he still wants to be able to control others’ behaviors. Therefore, he makes use of his limited speech to express simple thoughts of hunger, pleasure, displeasure, satisfaction and dissatisfaction through crying, laughing, shouting, and gurgling. As he advances in age, he will start to use what we call “baby-speak”, with phrases such as “Want milk” and “Go potty”.Stage 2 â€" Egocentric Speech If, in the first stage, t he purpose of the child’s speech is to control the behavior of other people, the egocentric speech in the second stage is spoken as a way for the child to direct his own behavior.This is usually demonstrated between the ages of 3 and 7, when the child starts to enunciate words more clearly and form more complete sentences, with more sense or thought. They practice this by talking out loud to themselves. It is actually normal behavior for them at this stage to do things, even the simple act of playing with a train set, with a running commentary of every little thing that they are doing.Stage 3 â€" Inner SpeechThe final speech development stage takes place once the child becomes older and starts growing toward adulthood, and he is able to use it to direct both his thinking and the resulting behavior or action. This does not require his thoughts to be voiced out loud, with all thinking processes done in his head. He can do mental calculations in his head, analyze a situation from all angles without saying a single word, and form an opinion without verbalizing his arguments.It is during this stage that the individual is now able to engage in all the other higher mental functions.Language involves speech â€" both its expression and comprehension. The two-way nature of communication requires that the language must be expressed or delivered, and it must also be understood. When expressed differently, or even erroneously, the recipient will receive a different meaning.This essentially means that language can dictate the way people look at things, and how they process information. It is powerful enough to have an impact on the rate or speed of cognitive development, given how it is connected or related to the other cognitive functions. For example, language can affect how a person perceives something. A country with a culture that recognizes only the primary colors and are unaware of the color called “champagne” is likely to perceive the hue as simply “a shade of pink”.In the same manner that an individual is more motivated to memorize something that is in a language he understands, and ignore one that is expressed in a language that is completely foreign to him.Learn about the benefits of a bilangual brain in the following video. Key concept #4 Self-initiated discovery and collaborative dialogue aid in a child’s cognitive development.According to Jean Piaget, the inherent curiosity of young children pushes them to be actively involved in their learning, and motivate them to discover and explore new things by themselves. They are the ones to actively initiate the discovery and development process. For Piaget, this is self-initiated and hands-on approach in discovery learning is the best way for children to learn.Vygotsky agrees mostly with Piaget, except for the last part. He postulated that the social and cultural settings that children’s activities take place in requires social interaction and communication, and that the children learn best through these social interactions. They acquire knowledge and hone skills through these interactions, as well as the culture surrounding them, and these ultimately shape their cognition.Through the concept of “cooperative or collaborative dialogue”, a child may learn his first words, the alphabet, his first nursery rhyme and how to count from 1 to 10 from his parents. As he grows older, he will be interacting with tutors and teachers, who are likely to provide verbal instructions and model or demonstrate behavior that will, consequently, guide him.II. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)Meet the MKO, a person with a better understanding and considerably higher or superior level of ability, skill or knowledge about a particular subject, task or process, than the person who is attempting to learn (also called the learner).It is common sense, really. Why would you seek to learn from someone who knows less than you?The MKO often comes in the person of a teacher, a superior at work, or a peer with more experience. There are instances when he could be someone younger, but with more cultivated knowledge and skill.   In this digital age, the MKO may even be a computer or any intelligent machine. In the eyes of a child, adults are the MKOs.Take, for example, a father and his little boy headed to their backyard to play catch. He happens to know how to play baseball, and he plans to teach his boy the basics while he is still young. In this case, the MKO is the father, by virtue of his adult status and his knowledge and skills in the sport.Twenty years later, the son is now a professional baseball player, and his father has just retired. Before a major game, the son hands his father the latest, most advanced camcorder model, so he can film the game from his VIP seat. He sits down with his father and teaches him how to operate the camcorder. This time, the MKO is the son, since he is more knowledgeable about the device.To prepare for the game, the son had to l eave, but before doing so, he downloaded an app on his father’s cell phone that will guide him further on how to work the camcorder. The father was then left exploring the features of the camcorder, using the voice prompts from the app on his phone. The MKO is now the electronic device, his cell phone.While learning and discovery that is self-initiated is effective, learning becomes more productive and contributory to cognitive development when acquired from an MKO.The concept of the MKO is seen to always go together with his other concept, that of the Zone of Proximal Development.III. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)Imagine a circle divided into three rings. The inner circle or ring represents what the child already knows, while the third, outermost circle or rings represents what he still does not know. Or we could use the inner circle to include those that the child can achieve or discover on his own. The outermost circle or ring includes those that he cannot achieve or d iscover independently, but can only do so with the help or guidance of someone who is more skilled or knowledgeable.What about the second, or middle circle?That gap, or that empty area between the inner and outer circles, is the Zone of Proximal Development. That is where the learning will take place.Vygotsky said that the ZPD is where the child will be given the most sensitive instruction or guidance, coupled with a lot of encouragement, from the MKO. Take note that the words used were “instruction” and “guidance”, as opposed to outright “full assistance”. This is because the MKO will provide just the right amount of guidance, and then allow the child to learn and develop his skills. By letting him do it independently, the MKO will help the child develop his higher mental functions faster, thereby speeding up cognition.Let us go back to the father and son example. The first few times, the father taught his son how to catch and throw the ball, holding his hand, teaching how to grip, pull back, and throw. After showing how it’s done several times, he will step back and let his son do it on his own. From time to time, he will give pointers and corrections but, for the most part, he let his son practice on his own.He did the same thing when teaching the other skills. Soon, the son learned how to figure things out on his own, so he starts practicing how to play ball by himself, not asking for help from his father unless absolutely necessary.When the son gave his father the camcorder, he showed him how to turn it on, and what buttons to push to record, zoom in, zoom out, pause, and other key features. Then he handed it over to his father, who practiced what he was just taught.Learning in the ZPD, as mentioned earlier, is facilitated with the help of an MKO, which is precisely why we said that these two often go together. The learning process, in itself, is a social interaction, which could be done directly or indirectly (with the use of technology, pe rhaps), between the learner and the MKO, who can be a teacher, professor, coach, mentor, or any older adult, or a peer or even someone younger, who happens to be more skillful, experienced, or knowledgeable in the area, subject or discipline that is being learned.CONCLUSIONWith so many psychological school of thoughts on cognitive development introduced, it came as no surprise that some concepts in Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory are being questioned. Still, no one can deny the influence of his theories, and how they are widely accepted and applied in the field of education, particularly early childhood education.

The New Class Of Anti Diabetic Drugs - 2008 Words

Abstract Glitazones are the new class of anti-diabetic drugs that are the first to be able to manage glycaemia goals. Troglitazone was first approved for the market in 1997, but it was withdrawn from the market by 2000. After the withdrawal of troglitazone, rosiglitazone and pioglitazone were introduced in 1999 as potentially safer alternatives. However, currently rosiglitazone is under black box warning for increased risk of cardiovascular disease and pioglitazone is in a nutshell as the drug required more investigation. In this review, the potential ability to predict the adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are examined. If it is possible to predict ADRs, should it be done in the future. Introduction Millions of people worldwide are affected due to diabetes, 90% of them having type 2 diabetes mellitus (non-insulin dependent). Since 1921, drug therapy has been improved minutely and in 1950s the antidiabetic sulphonamides and biguanides has been introduced. Therefore, the arrival of â€Å"glitazone† or thiazolidinediones is an important event (14). Thiazolidinediones are being developed for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance. Thiazolidinediones binds and activate the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ÃŽ ³ (PPAR), a nuclear receptor that regulates the several genes which are involved in metabolism. The PPAR ÃŽ ³ controls lipid storage, insulin sensitization and adipocyte differentiation. Besides the metabolic activities, thiazolidinediones also haveShow MoreRelatedThe Problem And Its Background Essay1123 Words   |  5 PagesInsulin therapy has some disadvantages such as ineffectiveness following oral administration, short shelf life, of the need for constant refrigeration, and fatal hypoglycaemia, in the event of excess dosage. 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Study on Indian Government Debts and Deficits and Its...

[pic] Study on government deficits and debts in India. How do government debt-deficit sustainability issues hinder India’s growth Abstract Emerging nation India has high hopes of becoming a developed nation. In recent time Indian economy is considered as the fastest growing economy hence there are certain drawbacks such as the government deficits, debts which hinder India from achieving their goal. Development of nation is based on several factors and its more important for every nation to encourage changes, although metamorphic changes have been brought about in the Indian economy every now and then which has seen India emerging as one of the fastest growing countries in the world but on the other hand one of the most embarrassing†¦show more content†¦There are various types of debts which companies consider to finance its projects and operations. These may be secured or insecure debts, further categorised into public and private debts. A basic loan is the simplest form of debt. 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COCEPTUAL ANALYSIS †¢ Indian banking system †¢ The problem of non performing assets †¢ Reasons for turning an asset in NPA †¢ Trend in NPAs 34 – 52 7. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS †¢ Impact of NPAs †¢ Difficulties with NPA †¢ Key structural changes †¢ Reporting format of

Love An Inexpressible and Indescribable Feeling Free Essays

Love is an indescribable and inexpressible feeling. It can affect a person to the point of recklessness. Once a soul has realized its counterpart in another, the effects can cause one to surrender themselves completely. We will write a custom essay sample on Love: An Inexpressible and Indescribable Feeling or any similar topic only for you Order Now Judgment becomes clouded and rationality no longer exists. In the end, all that remains is pure, indefinable emotion. This emotion is what fuels the person. Love is why almost everybody on Earth looks forward to tomorrow. Those who lack it will try to look for it. Those who have it, will work themselves to the bone Just for the ones they love. It is the best possible feeling Christopher Final Essay Love is an inexpressible and indescribable feeling. It can affect a person to the point of recklessness. Once a soul has recognized its counterpart in another, the effects can cause one to surrender themselves completely. Judgment becomes clouded and rationality no longer exists. In the end, all that remains is pure, indefinable emotion. This indefinable emotion is what fuels the person. Love is the reason why almost everybody on Earth looks forward to tomorrow. Those who do not have it, tries to look for it. Those who have it, will work themselves to the bone Just for the ones they love. It is the best possible feeling one could ever feel. While love seems like a splendid thing, it also has its flaws. The most well-known negative thing that comes along with love is Jealousy. Jealousy is a special form of emotive Kim k unemotional anxiety, which occurs due to the lack of a sense of security in relation to the one who is loved. The Jealousy directed to a third party, I. E. , the competitor who is perceived as the rival for the affection of the person who is loved. Jealousy is n emotion having components of both anger and fear commonly found in children. It originates from the lack of a sense of security for the affections of one who is loved and more attended to. The play, A Midnight Summer’s Dream is about several couples in love and the problems that cause relationships to crumble like dominoes, one after another. Shakespeare is mainly focusing on the crazy things that people do when they are in love. People tend to break the shackles of normalcy and common sense and do things for their own madness. In the play, A Midnight Summer’s Dream, Shakespeare uses the shifting of the peoples’ personalities to emphasize what love could do to people. As a person falls deeper in love, he or she becomes blind to things that happen around them and could care less about anything else except their own love affairs. Shakespeare portrays this in A Midsummer Night’s Dream when Helena accuses Demerits of killing Lessened and asks him if he has killed Lessened. The shift in her personality reveals the interference of love since she starts blaming others groundlessly. Shakespeare uses this to show how people react to problems hat involve love and how foolish their actions are. Another major problem caused by love is rivalry and how easily friendship can be crumbled when it comes to the issue of love. When Hermit enters the scene while Demerits and Lessened are with Helena, Hermit blindly enters and is questioned by Helena because Demerits and Lessened both originally liked Hermit. Therefore, she thinks it is a trick and they are when her close friend is involved. Thus, Helena starts the argument which causes her friendship with Hermit to crumble. Shakespeare is clearly showing the message of owe the common nature of people causes them to make rash decisions and change personalities because of love. People in love will see the world in a different perspective, they become so obsessed with their love to the extent that their world revolves around the person they love. This type of love can cause trouble, especially when deep and intense. This is seen almost every day in real life. For example, heartbroken girlfriends throwing pots down the window and locking their boyfriends out is the first image that comes to mind when thinking of Jealousy. How to cite Love: An Inexpressible and Indescribable Feeling, Papers

Moment of Discovery Essay Example For Students

Moment of Discovery Essay The high-pitched sound of a horn beeping in the driveway caught my attention. I looked up and sprinted to the window. Peering through the window, I heard Michaelas mother shout from downstairs, Jeana! Your mothers here!   Quickly, I gathered my scattered belongings, shoved them into my bag, said my goodbyes, and slammed the door behind me. I scampered down the stairs rapidly, knowing my mother was in a hurry. When I finally reached the car, I was struggling to catch my breath. I opened the door and plopped down on the seat, tossing my bag in the back seat. Immediately, the car began moving backward. I buckled my seatbelt and tried to get comfortable. After a few moments passed, my mother spoke up and asked, What did you do today?   OH!   I replied in excitement, We went swimming, and played a couple of games. It was a lot of fun. How was your day?   Well,   my mother responded with a pause, Do you remember when your cousin Jenny went through chemotherapy for her Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma seven years ago?   I sat there with no answer, and suddenly began to recall way back when I was seven years old. Memories came racing back into my mind. I remember going to the hospital to visit her, and my parents telling me she was very, very sick. They told me we had to be extremely careful not to bring germs into her room. Her once luscious, long, dark brown hair was gone. She looked exhausted, like she could give up at any moment, but she didnt. Cords were hooked all over her body supplying medicine to make her better. She was dressed in a hospital gown, which was not the most flattering thing in the world, but somehow she still looked beautiful. She was smiling through it all, showing everyone around her that she was strong enough to beat cancer. Although, we all knew deep, down inside, that this was the hardest experience she has ever gone through. It was not just going to go away over night like the common cold or flu. She had to fight for her life to overcome this disease, and she did, at least so I thought. Yes,   I answered, no longer with excitement knowing something was terribly wrong. The doctors told us that the tumors stopped growing and were no longer malignant. But, this time the cancer came back stronger, and progressing faster than before. The only option she has is to have a stem cell transplant, which will hopefully cure her. Because of this, she will have to stay in the hospital for a month while she undergoes extensive chemotherapy in order to prepare for the stem cell transplant.   Why does she have to get ready for the stem cell transplant? How come they cant just do it now?   I questioned. They need to lower her immune system down to basically nothing before they do the transplant, so her body doesnt fight the transplant off. This is very dangerous because she can easily pick up other infections. But, all we can do is hope and pray for the best.   I sat in the car in silence, taking all of this in. I looked out the window trying to avoid eye contact with my mother; I knew she was crying and I felt as if I would begin at any moment. I didnt understand why bad things happen to such kind-hearted, loving people. This car ride changed my mood from upbeat and carefree to sad and confused. We didnt know how this treatment would react with her body, and for all we knew it could lead to death. .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 , .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 .postImageUrl , .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 , .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3:hover , .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3:visited , .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3:active { border:0!important; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3:active , .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3 .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5a7623cb13a958ce6ff24679e705d6a3:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Rosa parks EssayThis car ride could not be over fast enough. I just wanted to be in my bed, escaping from the world for a bit, while I sorted things out in my head. My cousin, Jenny, is by far one of the biggest role models in my life. She fought cancer off, not once, but twice. When I was seven years old, I didnt exactly understand how cancer would change her life. I didnt know it could come back again, even stronger than the first time. I thought once it was gone, it would always be gone. Cancer has brought my family closer together; we didnt understand how much we needed each other until adversity struck. We learned to take one day at a time and not rush things. Being positive through all this commotion made me into a stronger person. We learned to laugh through the hard times and never take a moment together for granted. Tears watered our frowns blooming forth smiles and drowned our sobs, bringing forth laughter. We were each others support group, always there when one of us was down. This experience has made me into the person I am today. I learned to appreciate little moments with loved ones, and never take a person for granted because you never know when reality will hit.

Lemon Lovin’ Life Essay Essay Example

Lemon Lovin’ Life Essay Essay Introduction The company. Lemon Lovin’ Life. is a lemonade base that is in the drink concern. Bing that it is a popular drink and the low cost of get downing a lemonade concern. there is competition doing it rather competitory in the market. This study outlines the company’s branding scheme. designation of possible new locations. promotional programs. and employee preparation chances. Branding Scheme We will write a custom essay sample on Lemon Lovin’ Life Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Lemon Lovin’ Life Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Lemon Lovin’ Life Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer To make a stigmatization scheme for Lemon Lovin’ Life it will besides consists of the selling mix. viz. . merchandise. topographic point. and publicity. Lemon Lovin’ Life has a sensible size and will be priced competitively. It will be known for its healthy. natural. delightful. and well-known gustatory sensation. A focal point of the drink is to acquire it to be appreciated non merely during the summer months. but instead. the whole twelvemonth unit of ammunition. Foregrounding its wellness benefits with addition consumer’s involvement into the merchandise. If this investing is success. Lemon Lovin’ Life could spread out by adding a turn to the lemonade drinks. For case. a lemonade drink can hold a combination of lemon and strawberry. lemon and Ananas comosus but ever concentrating on lemon as the chief spirit. Ideally the lemonade base will be placed in forepart of the owner’s house possibly near a tree for shadiness. Attracting more consumers. being that they won’t have to stand under the blaze Sun. For selling intents. circulars and postings will be distributed in assorted strategic topographic points in the vicinity along with naming friends and household. Making a page on Facebook. a Twitter history. and Instagram. among others. will besides to a great extent use societal media sites. Opportunities for New Locations Lemon Lovin’ Life’s end is to make as many clients as possible in order to turn to the altering lifestyle picks that chiefly purpose to hold healthy life. The new locations must see that the mark market has entree to the lemonade whenever they’d like. This scheme will already tap a figure of clients runing from kids. female parents purchasing for their households. wellness fans. and immature people who can already do their ain purchases ( Bovee A ; Thill. 2013. p. 346 ) . Promotion Plans Normally local occupants back up new concern ventures and Lemon Lovin’ Life has $ 10. 000 to pass for advertisement. Sing the merchandise subject assorted selling vehicles will be utilized to pass on the message. image. and presence of the concern. Bovee A ; Thill ( 2013 ) asserted that there are different ways to advance merchandises. including the usage of print media ( magazines. local newspapers and pupil publications ) ( p. 382 ) . broadcast media ( local Television shows. wireless plans ) . hotel ushers ( Chamber of Commerce newssheets. booklets. circulars ) . direct mail ( subscriber lists. inserts in newspapers. office mail bringing ) ( p. 374 ) . societal media ( Facebook. Twitter. Instagram ) ( p. 382 ) . and others ( attending in charity events. sponsorships. imperativeness conferences ) ( p. 382 ) . Employee Training In hope that the company shall turn. it will be necessary to engage more people in order to assist run the lemonade base. It is besides of import for the company to put in developing the staff to go on to offer quality lemonade. To make this. the company should ever look into whether employees are engaged. satisfied. committed. and rooted ( Bovee A ; Thill. 2013. p. 220 ) . Supplying employees with occupation security through a strong wage is the first measure. Second. supply employees with wellness insurance and retirement programs that can be extended to their households. Finally. the company must guarantee that employees have a clear calling way. particularly for those who have leading qualities to let them to hold the feeling that what they are making is â€Å"worthwhile and fulfilling in itself† ( Bovee A ; Thill. 2013. p. 223 ) . When these demands are met. employees are will really see the occupation in a different mode. Their attitude toward working there will be a p ositive 1. Decision Get downing a company is non merely about holding the money and engaging employees. There are other facets that should be considered. including the viability of the merchandise. the mark market. demographical considerations. the location. and marketing the merchandise. Mentions Bovee. C. L. . A ; Thill. J. V. ( 2013 ) . Business in action. ( 6th erectile dysfunction ) . Upper Saddle River. New jersey: Pearson.

TransAsia plane crashes in Taiwan river

TransAsia plane crashes in Taiwan river A TransAsia Airways plane carrying 53 people, including two children and five crew members, crashed in a river in Taiwan’s capital. At Least 13 People killed and Carrier loses the second aircraft in last 8 months. The first deadly incident for TransAsia in the past   year    was a plane   crashed July 23 near the airport at Magong on Taiwan’s Penghu island during a thunderstorm. As a result, 48 deaths and 10 people were injured. A TransAsia plane crashed shortly Wednesday morning and fall into a river just minutes after takeoff.  TransAsia Flight GE235, an ATR 72-600 turboprop, took off from Taipei at around 10.53am and was on its way to the island of Kinmen when the incident    happened. At least   27 people have been rescued from the plane’s wreckage. A number of people have been sent to the hospital, and the death toll has been steadily rising throughout the day. According to CNA, 31 passengers aboard the flight were Chinese tourists from Xiamen. A TransAsia media office declined to comment on possible reasons for the crash, deferring to a news conference scheduled for later on Wednesday. The causes of the disaster were not immediately clear but FlightRadar24.com, a specialist website, said the      plane had attempted to   turn back before its crash and had been in the air for less than three minutes. TransAsia Airways CEO Chen Xinde told reporters that TransAsia Airways expressed its deep apology to the victims and our crew. Dramatic pictures taken by a motorist and posted on Twitter showed the plane cartwheeling over the motorway soon after the turboprop ATR 72-600 aircraft took off in apparently clear weather on a domestic flight. Another video broadcast on Taiwanese television appeared to show the plane striking a bridge before crashing. Rescue operations are ongoing and first responders in rubber boats are currently trying to enter the aircraft.

External Analysis for (Lifestyle lift Co.) Essay

External Analysis for (Lifestyle lift Co.) - Essay Example The lift procedure performed by this company involves incision making, usually on sides of the faces and eventually removing excess skin. The company promotes its services by infomercial advertising, usually on television. Nevertheless, it publishes websites such as Life lift.com that describes various face-lift procedures and that contains information regarding the locations of its affiliated offices around US. Various external factors affect performance and competitiveness of Life Lift Company since entering the Sacramento market. The company enjoying a large market share has faced malpractice claims and criticism from the public and its customers. Evidently, a woman died just an hour after undergoing the cosmetic facial surgery in one of its affiliated branches in Maitland, within the state of Florida (Kathy 01). Besides this, some of its competitors are using information from the patients who at some point show up demanding for another operation. Popovich of Folsom had a face-lift neck at the company’s San Mateo but went for another surgery because one of his faces appeared droopy. Public and its esteemed customers deemed it negative for the company to sue two of its competitor’s website. In essence, entry into the industry has associated legal, ethical and financial costs, which act as barriers for new

Arms, Mines, and Use of Explosive Force Research Paper

Arms, Mines, and Use of Explosive Force - Research Paper Example The working structure shown by Rutherford of how NGOs advanced their cause included two sections into which the agenda setting components could be divided. The first takes a keen view of level-one agenda setting called â€Å"cognitive agenda setting,† and the second takes another keen view of level-two agenda setting, called â€Å"norm agenda setting†. The first section investigates how NGOs placed the landmine issue on the agenda of the government and the public. The second investigates the influence of the particular elements of the landmine issue on the agendas of the public and the government (Rutherford 78). Another reason why Rutherford’s explanation is more compelling is that he shows the three important components of agenda setting that were addressed by NGOs in both sections, as they advanced their cause leading to the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Treaty. These are framing, schema, and priming. Framing means the selection of elements within a particular issue . These elements are used in the promotion of a particular problem definition, evaluation in moral terms, and treatment recommendation for the item viewed. The core of the second level of setting agendas is the transference of the salience of attributes. Schema on the other hand is a concept linked closely to framing, but takes a deeper view on how people organize their thinking. Priming is the process of activation of schemas. It assumes that features of a stimulus or frequency activates cognitive structures that were previously learned and has an influence on ambiguous stimulus interpretations. These three important components of agenda setting were then addressed in both sections. In addressing framing in section one, the landmines were listed as a new issue and in the process, get people to think about landmines as a humanitarian issue. In section two, the horrible effects and disproportionate consequences of landmines were exposed. In addressing schema in section one, outrageou s landmine statistics were listed, and in section two, leadership games to control the landmine issue were revealed. In addition, in addressing priming in section one, landmine victim stories were told, most of them sad. In section two, incoherent arguments among anti-ban states were brought up. This is more convincing (Rutherford 78). Hubert on the other hand chooses to focus more on the proceedings of conferences that were held prior to the signing of the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban treaty. This, in my view, is not very convincing, as it does little to show how the NGOs and other organizations influenced the debates and proceedings at those conferences. For example, at The Conference on Disarmament, he explains of how supporters of the CD approach were opposed by the supporters of the Ottawa Process. He does not go further to explain how the CD process was reached at and who exactly came up with the process (Hubert 19). The third reason why Rutherford advanced a more compelling argume nt is that, apart from coming up with a structure of how NGOs advanced their cause leading to the Anti-Personnel Landmine Treaty, he went ahead to explain the structure comprehensively. Hubert had no comprehensive structure in the first place and therefore, his explanations were not very catchy. Rutherford explained his structure well by stating the three agenda-setting components in the two levels. In stating the agenda-setting c

Inflation and economic growth

Inflation and economic growth This section of the paper provides literary evidence on the relationship of inflation in the economic growth and helps in the understanding of any causal relation between them, if there exists any. We start with the conclusive evidence provided by Min Li (of the University of Alberta). We extract this support from the research conducted by Li on the Inflation Threshold Effects in the Finance-Growth Nexus and Transmission Mechanism Analysis. During the course of this research, the author examined the relationship between the inflation and the finance and economic growth, utilizing data collected from 90 countries. The authors research finds evidence of the existence of a nonlinear effect of the inflation the relation between finance and growth. The research also finds that though finance may stimulate growth at low inflation, however, the relationship does not hold beyond the threshold of 15% for inflation. The main features of this research includes the implication that the adverse e ffect inflation has on economic growth during a period of high inflation can only be controlled by improving the course of actions of all financial intermediaries (Li M. , 2007) The findings of the research show a strong positive and a significant relationship between finance and growth. However, as far as the effect of inflation on this relationship is concerned, there is little accord, and a threshold is agreed to be an existing component in the theory. This implies that as the inflation rises above a certain threshold level, which is estimated to lie between 14-16 %, the positive finance-growth relation weakens. The research also implies that the cost of inflation can be be said to have been derive by the management capabilities of financial intermediaries with regard to accumulated capital. The paper examines the productivity of capital in a high-inflation environment, concluding with the findings, which provide evidence on the existence of a robust non-linear relationship between inflation and the productivity of capital, and also identifying it as a causal relationship in a way that inflation has adverse effects on the productivity of capital. (Li M. , 2007) In another research, in which Li talks about a general agreement among economists upon the problems caused by inflation, an examination of relationship between inflation and economic performance has been brought into play. in contrast to the other research that, examines the adverse effects of inflation on the capital productivity, the author attempted to shift the focus to economic performance and its relationship with inflation. This research, Inflation and Economic Growth is collected from a data of 90 countries that are developing and 28 developed countries besides them, over the period of 1961-2004 in order to extract relevant evidence on the target relationship analysis. According to Li, in this research, the evidence provided buy the research findings supports the concept of the existence of a non-linear relationship between inflation and economic growth, not unlike capital productivity. (Li M. , 2006) However, a detailed study revealed that this result varies between developed and developing countries in terms of nonlinearity in the proposed variable relationship. The findings of the research lead to shaping of important phenomena pertaining to relationship between inflation and performance. Li claims that at lower than first threshold, of the two identified, level of inflation, the effects of inflation on growth are not significant and are positive. at moderate rate, between the two levels the effect is significant and negative and above the second threshold the marginal impact of additional inflation vanished from the growth but the relationship is still found to be negative. This can only be said for the developed countries, where only one threshold is to be found which has proven to have any significance. Thus according to the non-linear mechanism that follows , the magnitude of the negative impact that inflation has on the growth falls with an increase in inflation while at l ower than moderate level of inflation, the effect is even positive on the level of investment (Li M. , 2006). Li concludes her research with the findings that consistently support the nonlinearity of relationship between inflation an economic growth or performance. Li, also finds that the policy makers should not keep inflation rate at zero as single digit inflation does not hinder rather even stirs up economic growth. Furthermore, a hyperinflation, the one that surpasses beyond the second threshold level, does not have a an even worse negative impact on growth, rather the marginal impact actually falls with increase in inflation level. Thus controlling a moderate level of inflation should be a countrys primary goal pertaining to inflation (Li M. , 2006). The discussed literary findings proceed with the impact of inflation on the capital accumulation and the economic growth. Winding its path along other literature contents, the study of inflation effects on the economic growth finds its way into a research conducted by M. Ali Kemal in Is inflation in Pakistan a Monetary Phenomenon? during the course of conducting research, Kemal attempted to analyze and identify the impact that other factors, specifically change in money supply, would have on the rate of inflation. Kemal found that an increase in money supply over a long period leads to high inflation. The concluded research of Kemal, besides having relevance to our research, provided a decent level of support to the quantity theory of money as well. Thus empirically coming to a conclusion, Kemal claimed that inflation is indeed a monetary phenomenon. In order to study the impact of inflation on economic growth, it is pertinent that we examine the effect of other factors on inflation as well and employ it in enhancing our understanding of the important of inflation in the growth process. According to Kemal, a change in money supply effects the rate of inflation in the long run. Since the Quantity Theory of Money also holds in the long run, this led him to believe and later on evidently prove that inflation is a monetary phenomenon (Kemal, 2006).Kemal argues that money supply does not have an immediate impact on the price levels. on the contrary, a change in money supply would start indicating any affected changes in the price levels with a lag of about 9 months time. The study conducted by Kemal, emphasize the efficiency of the system that the money supply works through, showing that it takes less than a year to convey an induction. However, it also points out that once a stir up takes place, the system takes it time to achieve equilibrium state again under the circumstances that the induced change works it way from a change in one the three variables which include GDP, money supply and prices. In the short run, the impact of a change in money supply on inflation in not instant. the effect seeps through the system to actually induce any change with a lag of at least a period of 3 quarters (Kemal, 2006). Having had proven that inflation is a monetary phenomenon through evidence provided by Kemal, we move on towards the research conducted by Abdul Qayyum who, in his study Does Monetary Policy Play Effective Role in controlling Inflation in Pakistan, has conducted a research in the light of the data available for Pakistan in order to get a clearer understanding of monetary Policy framework and the extent to which and how it controls inflation specifically in Pakistans economy. this includes a number of factors that are a source of rise in price level like wages, exchange rate, external shocks, depletion of natural resources, taxes etc. wheat prices have specifically been allegedly been known as the cause of the increasing inflation in Pakistan (Government of Pakistan, Various Issues). Following what Abdul Qayyums research study , we found through the inflation control in not a recent phenomenon, but a topic of interest and of utmost importance since 1970s. there have been many debates regarding the causes of inflation however, controlling it is an collectively agreed topic of prioritized importance among economists and policymakers. which makes it central banks responsibility to control inflation, since central controls monetary policy and inflation is deductively a monetary phenomenon. The thing that most intrigued in Abdul Qayyum in this regard was the effectiveness of monetary policy in controlling inflation. we observe from the data provided for Pakistan that whenever the money supply target was controlled the inflation was controlled successfully (Qayyum, 2008). However, not too many rare occasions like this have occurred and due to the absence of coordination between the government and the central bank, the implementation of monetary policy has lost its effectiveness. Other problems have risen as well and the monetary policy has been experiencing inconsistency in reaction time along with ineffectiveness, nevertheless, we have evidence enough from the recent years of the effectiveness of monetary policy in controlling inflation by observing that when SBP failed to control the money supply , it consequently failed to control the rate of inflation within the target levels. If worked out efficiently it produces outcome effectively (Qayyum, 2008). Another study Does Volatility in Government Borrowing Leads to Higer iInflation? conducted by Adnan Haider and Safdar Ullah Khan analyzes the impact of volatility in the borrowing of the government from the central bank on the rate of inflation that persists domestically in Pakistan. The findings of the research study that was conducted for the sake of examining the sensitivity of inflation rate to volatility in government borrowing, indicate that there exists a relationship between the two especially in the long run. The research was conducted in the light of supporting fiscal dominance hypothesis in the determination of in inflation in Pakistans economy (Haider Khan, 2007). The result enlightens us with very important piece of information pertaining to the relationship, in connection with the fiscal dominance hypothesis, between the two variables; volatility in governments borrowing and the inflation rate. Its indicates that a significantly strong relationship exists between the two. even in the long run this relationship holds significantly. According to Haider and Khan, the estimated coefficient implies that one standard deviation change in volatility in borrowing from the central bank leads to a change of 8.5% in domestic inflation. specifically it indicates a relationship but not the direction or the causal dynamis of the relationship. these findings lead us to posession of evidence relationg to the importance of monetary policy in affecting inflation which in turn effects the economic growth (Haider Khan, 2007). Pertaining to the factors that affect the inflation, political stability goes hand in hand in holding equal importance with regards to being a factor determinant of the inflation in an economy. Safdar Ullah Khan, together with Omar Farooq saqib conducted a study Political Instability and Inflation in Pakistan, to investigate the impact of the instability in government and political situation in the country on inflation rate in Pakistan. The results are implies in terms of monetary model and in terms of non monetary model. In term of monetary model, results conclude that the monetary determinants effect inflation marginally and they are dependent upon the political situation of the country. (Khan Saqib, 2008) In non monetary terms, Adnan and his associate found a positive relationship between the variables; political instability and inflation. The analysis was done on interactive dummies that represent political instability and induce high inflation. The research may, however, also lead us into believing that inflation is a non monetary phenomenon due to its strong affiliation with changes in government infrastructure and political crisis. It may also lead to an implication that government crisis rather than oil prices are responsible for the high inflationary pressure. Nevertheless, we observe a lack of significant research studies relating these two variables and given the high volume of political unrest in our country in the recent years (Haider Khan, 2007). In his other paper, Qayyum attempted to examine the link between the excess growth in money supply and inflation in Pakistans economy, investigated the soundness of the theroy that inflation is a monetary phenomenon. Qayyum conducted this research to come with an outcome that indicated that there is a positive alliance between inflation and money supply growth. The way the implication of the research went about is that the growth in money supply at first affects the GDP which in turn affects inflation. This further indicates and hence, implies that money supply growth is a factor contributor in rise of price level. Thus money supply affects inflation and we can deduce from this implication that inflation is after all a monetary phenomenon , which is controlled by monetary policy and can be controlled by tight monetary regulations (Qayyum, 2006). The validity of the theory has been confirmed by the study conducted consisting of tests and analysis by Qayyum and therefore its stands safe to assume that money supply is one of the key determining factors of inflation in Pakistan. To find the relationship between money growth and inflation, Qayyum estimated the relationship between the rate of inflation, money growth, growth in real income, and growth in velocity in Pakistan for the data provided covering the 1960-2005 period. An important conclusion that surfaced from this research was that there exists a significant relationship between the variable; inflation and money growth proving that the growth in money supply is a vital contributor to the rise in inflation. Furthermore, even the recent act by the State Bank of Pakistan to tighten the monetary policy, supports the theory that inflation in Pakistan is a monetary phenomenon. (Qayyum, 2006). The same argument was made by Wasim Malik in his study Money, Output and Inflation that the effect of changes in money supply seeps into output through inflation, however, with some lags. And through a series of tests Malik found that above hypothesis cannot be rejects owing to its strong and valid stance. Malik claims that the three possible argument can explain the high inflation in history including monetary policy, supply side factors and foreign inflation. tests however show that effect monetary policy transfers into inflation with a lag of half a year and then takes another year to reach the peak. The reason why this happens can be explained by two possible situations, according to Malik; First, central bank focuses on future targets more than on the previous trends while deciding on the money growth and second, th central bank does that out of fear of losing higher growth (Malik, 2006). Having analyzed the research studies, that examine variables affecting inflation and rendering it a monetary phenomenon and we come back to our literature review in examining the literature contents that would help us find material evidence on the importance of inflation and its relationship to growth. So far conclusive researches conducted by Min Li have been very helpful and have been supporting our expected findings smoothly. This brings us to reviewing a research by Vikesh Gokal and Subrina Hanif on Relationship Between Inflation and Economic growth. These authors work their way through research with the initial observation that show the many developed countries have a predetermined goal of achieving high growth and maintaining it side by side with a low inflation rate. This inspired them to carry on with their research given o much importance that it holds in the economy. The nature of relationship that exists between inflation and growth has been a debatable topic for quite some time. The authors have reviewed different theories on the inflation-growth relationship including those that are Classical; emphasizes on the need to save and invest for growth purposes, Keynesian; emphasizes on the critical role of monetary growth in changing inflation rates and Neoclassical; emphasizes on the impact the inflation has on capital accumulation and investment. The paper also reveals the findings of other research studies conducted n this filed and incorporating their results to conclude their own research, testing whether a momentous relationship exist between the two mentioned variables (Gokal Hanif, 2004). Contrary to what Li found later on, Hanif and Vikesh found there, to be a weak correlation between inflation and growth. Also the causality was found to be running from GDP to inflation. These results were in accordance and derived from the review of other research studies conducted by authors before their own time. According to Michael Sarels inflation impacted a negative growth after 8% (Michael Sarel, 1996). In another research authors found the threshold of inflation in industrial countries to be around 1-3% and in developing countries o be 11-12 % (Khan; Senhadji, 2001). These findings led the authors of this paper to conclusions that the two variable; inflation and growth has weak negative correlation and the causality ran from growth to inflation rather than what was proposed and found by Li later in time (Gokal Hanif, 2004). Following the course the was led by Gokal and Hanif, Chimobi conducted a study in Nigeria to follow a similar suit of finding any existing relationship between inflation and economic growth, but his study was specific to Nigeria. Chimobi found, as a result of the study he conducted based on the data for Nigeria inflation and growth over the period 1970-2005, that there was no co-integrating relationship between inflation and economic growth for Nigeria. The second attempt the author made in his research as to determine the causality of the relationship between inflation and economic growth. Conclusively a unidirectional causality was found between the variable running from inflation to economic growth that were in orderly support of what Min Li found, however quite the contrary to what Gokal and Hanif proposed (Gokal Hanif, 2004). This was an indication implied by the empirical evidence that a relationship does exist between inflation and economic growth and inflation indeed does ha ve an impact on economic growth (Chimobi, 2010). However it was not concluded whether the relationship that existed between inflation and economic growth was positive or negative for Nigeria. We can only deduce from other studies that have been reviewed in literature that inflation has never had a favourable impact on the economic growth outcome (Chimobi, 2010). This shall be covered in the discussion to come. A study estimate of the threshold level of inflation in Pakistan was covered by Yasir Ali Mubarik in his research on Inflation and Growth. According to the research conducted by Yasir, a finding surfaced that showed that threshold level of 9% exists in Pakistan beyond which inflation will be rendered harmful for economic growth (Mubarik, 2005). Having put the home dataset through causality test and then analyzing it for sensitivity for inflation and economic growth the research concluded the some findings that include the existence of a relationship between inflation and economic growth. Since a threshold level was determined , any impact of inflation on economic growth, whether negative or positive, is still considered as a relationship between the two variables. Another finding that was deduced was that there existed a unidirectional relationship between the variables running from inflation to economic growth. Since inflation was found to have a negative impact beyond a threshold level on the economic growth, therefore, the relationship was taken to be causal running from inflation to economic growth and not vice versa. the research conducted however did not specify a lower level of threshold below which economic growth would not occur. Regardless the research poses as an important conclusion for the policymakers (Mubarik , 2005). A study analysis of Relationship between inflation and growth is performed by Erbaykal Okuyan in their study Inflation in Pakistan in which the relationship between the inflation and the economic growth in Turkey has been examined for the data covering the period of 1987-2006. Through their research they discovered the existence of a long term relationship between the two variables; Inflation and economic growth in turkey. Using the causality test used by Toda Yamamoto, Erbaykal Okuyan examined the causality relationship between the two (Yamamoto, 1995). However, they found no causal relationship between the two variable from economic growth to inflation but they did found a causal relationship from inflation to economic growth. implying the inflation has an impact on the economic growth (Erbaykal Okuyan, 2008). Khan Schimmelpfennig, in this paper observe the factors that help forecast inflation in Pakistan and explain it. The research conducted by Khan Schimmelpfennig emplys a simple inflation model, which includes standard monetary variables (money supply, credit to the private sector), an activity variable, the interest and the exchange rates, as well as the wheat support price as a supply-side factor to estimate the forecast while indicators like private sector credit growth and broad money growth are considered effective for inflation forecast which can be used for future developments pertaining to inflation. The results found empirically during the course of the research conducted by Khan Schimmelpfennig show that monetary factors are good indicators of inflation, since inflation is a monetary phenomenon (Khan Schimmelpfennig, 2006). Thus, according to Khan Schimmelpfennig, the two key variables that explain inflation developments are Broad money growth and private sector credit growth. In order to control Inflation in Pakistan and thus spur growth ,price stability should be the prime objective of the SBP. With monetary policy in action, the exchange rate shall no longer be able to offset the effect external shocks on the economy which leaves the SBP with nothing but to maintain price stability, which will ultimately prove to be the best policy contribution for sustained growth. The course of the research provided us with results that show that in the short run, there may not be a trade-off between inflation and growth, however, in the medium- and long-run, it blissfully exists. Moreover the authors argue that monetary policy should be more concerned with core inflation because given the volatility in some part of CPI, food prices and energy prices, core inflation is a better measure of underlying trends of infl ation than headline inflation. Furthermore, the authors conclude that even though core inflation is the right tool for monetary policy, nevertheless, the SBP must keep a watch over headline inflation. (Khan Schimmelpfennig, 2006).

The evolution of management accounting

This paper starts with introducing importance of management accounting literature and reviews the historical development of cost accounting from 1850 through 2000, includes origin of management accounting and controlling practices. In addition it identifies the management accounting theoretical development, and the main critiques that shapes the development of management accounting, thus creating a ground for future research or reviews.As well as it presents challenge existed in the field and concludes by advocating field-based research to discover the innovative ractices being introduced by organizations successfully adapting to the new organization and technology of manufacturing. 1. Introduction 1. 1 Importance of knowing the literature A wealth of literature exists regarding the historical development and evolution of management accounting so accountants have many reasons to study this literature. It helps them to understand the sources of many of today's practices; it leads to r ediscovery of old ideas that have been lost.It enables one to support proposal with past writings quoting from an important work and can help them to sell a proposal or ive credence to an idea. As with study of any literature, it provides accountants with opportunities to improve their verbal abilities, both written and oral and familiarizes accountants with the intellectuals and innovators who have shaped how account proactive their profession in addition it illustrates the state of the professionalism of the field and leads them to an awareness of the controversial topics in the field.In addition to the financial summaries, the railroads developed a system of reporting operating statistics for evaluating and con-trolling the performance of their sub-units. Statistics such as cost per ton-mile and the operating ratio (operating in-come divided by sales) were routinely reported for various sub-units and classes of service. Later in the 1880s, the newly formed mass distribution [Chan dler, 1977, Chapter 7(cited on R. kaplan1984)] and mass production enterprises adapted the internal accounting reporting systems ot the railroads to their own organizations.The nationwide wholesale and retail distributors produced highly detailed data on sales turnover by department and by geographic area, generating performance reports very similar to those that would be sed 100 years later to monitor the performance of revenue centers in the firm. Mass production enterprises formed in the 1880s for the manufacture of tobacco products, matches, detergents, photographic film, and flour. Most important was the emergence of the metal-making and fabricating industries.Andrew Carnegie's steel company was a particularly good example of the importance of cost accounting information for managing the enterprise. Shinn's [the general manager's] major achievement was the development of statistical data needed for coordination and control. Shinn did this in part by introducing the voucher syst em of ac-counting hich though it had long been used by railroads was not yet in general use in manufacturing concerns. By this method, each department listed the amount and cost of materials and labor used on each order as it passed through the sub-unit.Such information per-mitted Shinn to send Carnegie monthly statements and, in time, even daily ones providing data on the costs of ore, limestone, coal, coke, pig iron, Spiegel, molds, refractoriness, repairs, fuel, and labor for each ton of rails produced. These cost sheets [were] called â€Å"marvels of ingenuity and careful accounting. † These cost sheets were Carnegie's primary instrument of control. Costs ere Carnegie's obsession†¦. Carnegie concentrated . .. on the cost side of the operating ratio, comparing current costs of each operating unit with those of previous months, and where possible, with those of other enterprises†¦.These controls were effective†¦.. â€Å"The minutest details of cost of materi als and labor in every department appeared from day to day and week to week in the accounts; and soon every man about the place was made to realize it. The men felt and often remarked that the eyes of the company were always on them through the books. † In addition to using their cost sheets to evaluate the performance of department anagers, foremen and men, Carnegie, Shinn and Jones relied on them to check the quality and mix of raw materials.They used them to evaluate improvements in process and in product and to make decisions on developing by-products. In pricing, particularly non standardized items like bridges, cost-sheets were invaluable. The company would not accept a contract until its costs were carefully estimated [Chandler, 1977, pp. 267-268] (cited on R kaplan1984). Interestingly, the development of these elaborate cost reporting and estimation schemes by the 1880s focused exclusively on direct labor and materials, what we call today prime or direct costs; hat is, little attention was paid to overhead and capital costs.Carnegie's concern was almost wholly with prime costs. He and his associates appear to have paid almost no attention to overhead and depreciation. This too reflected on the railroad experience. As on the railroads, administrative over-head and sales expenses were comparatively small and estimated in a rough fashion. Likewise, Carnegie relied on replacement accounting by charging re-pair, maintenance, and renewals to operating costs. Carnegie had, therefore, no certain way of determining capital invested in his plant nd equipment.As on the railroads, he evaluated performance in terms of the operating ratio (the cost of operations as a percentage of sales) and profits in terms ot a percentage ot book value ot stock issues [ n I , 1977, p. 268 (cited on C and er R. kaplan 1984)]. Thus, cost accounting practice in the late 1800s did not include the allocation of fixed costs to products or to periods. Despite the enormous capital i nvested in these new manufacturing enterprises, there was apparently no systematic method for forecasting investments or coordinating and monitoring capital investment.Andrew Carnegie is reported to have undertaken almost any new investment that would reduce his prime operating costs: Carnegie's operating strategy was to push his own direct cost below those of all competitors so that he could charge prices that would always ensure enough demand to keep his plant running at full capacity†¦. Secure in his knowledge that his costs were the lowest in the industry, Carnegie then engaged in merciless price cutting during economic recessions. While competing firms went under, he still made profits [Johnson, 1981, p. 515] (cited on R. kaplan1984).Management accounting development was highly nfluenced by scientific management theory, based on which accounting received academic basis and directions for purposeful development (Chatfield, 1977 cited on Darius Gliaubicas (2012)) The scienti fic management movement in American industry provided a major impetus to the further development of cost accounting practices [Chandler, 1977, pp. 272-283] cited on R. kapaln(1984)). The major fgures in this movement were engineers who, by detailed Job analyses and time and motion studies, determined â€Å"scientific† standards for the amount of labor and material required to produce a given unit of output.These standards were used to provide a basis for paying workers on a piece-work basis, and to determine bonuses for workers who were highly productive. The names associated with developing the scientific management approach include Frederick Taylor, Harrington Emerson, A. Hamilton Church, and Henry Townen. This approach included not only the development of work standards but also a new form of organization, supplementing the traditional operating or line functions with staff function designed â€Å"not to accomplish work, but to set up standards and ideals, so that the lin e may work more efficiently.The â€Å"scientific management† advocates also started the practice of measuring and allocating overhead costs to products. Innovations came primarily in deter-mining indirect costs or what was termed the â€Å"factory burden,† and in allocating both indirect and direct (or prime) costs to each of the different products produced by a plant or factory so as to develop still more accurate unit costs†¦. In a series of articles published in the Engineering Magazine in 1901, Alexander Church began to devise ways to account for a machine's â€Å"idle time,† for money lost when machines were not in use.Henry Gantt and others then developed methods of btaining standard costs based on standard volume of throughput by determining standard costs based on a standard volume of, say, 80 percent of capacity; these men defined the increased unit costs of running below standard volume as â€Å"unabsorbed bur-den† and decreased unit costs over that volume as â€Å"over-absorbed burden† [Chandler, 1977, pp. 278-279] (cited on R. kaplan 1984) Also, under performance of scientific management theory, a need for operative and perspective information has formed (Fleischman ; Tyson, (2007) cited on Darius Gliaubicas (2012)).Metcalfe ideas had high influence on cost accounting development. In his book â€Å"The cost of manufactures†, published in 1885, he discussed separation of direct and indirect costs in order to make ettective management decisions . Formation ot modern management accounting methods, were also influenced by General Motors ideas. In 1919 it was created promoting salary system; started implementing flexible budgets, developed transfer pricing method Du Pont Powder company, was one of the first USA companies, that started developing several activities at the same time Oohnson ; Kaplan, 1987).When company diversified its activities, management required such accounting system that ould help contr olling all products value chains, coordinate performance of individual subdivisions, while meeting owners' interests. Du Pont company's executives, wanted to control return on capital that owners invested, and at the same time Justify investment financing decisions. That is why was created ROI ratio. When World War I ended, cost accounting became a profession (Loft, 1990).Under the influence of great depression in 1933, USA government established mandatory provision, to form fair practice codex, which would include paying employees' reasonable wages and determining weekly working hours. Therefore cost accounting pecialists had to ensure two main functions, while following fair practice codex: (1) ensure, that prices would not be lower than prime costs and (2) to harmonize costs calculating rules and methods Oohnson & Kaplan. 1987).During World War II, the importance of standard cost accounting method has reduced, because government wanted to trade only with those companies, whose pr oduction costs were close to actual, not standard costs (Fleischman & Tyson, 2007). About 1954, management accounting definition was mentioned for the first time. In Simon (1954) research that included employees from 7 biggest USA companies, it was ound that management accounting information is used to fulfill three main control functions: (1) registering performance results, (2) managing attention and 3) solving problems.Performance results were given in financial reports. Attention managing was based on comparison of plans budgets and actual results. Problem solving function has been implemented by making decisions, such as: manufacture or buy, what if analysis or alternative pricing decisions. Also, a need to calculate direct production costs, to perform absorption and marginal costing has grown at about 1950 (Chatfield, 1977). In 1960s, when USA companies influence in worldwide economy has decreased, responsibility accounting has formed, which allowed determining who is responsi ble for individual scope (Kaplan, 1983).In 1970s first costs managing accounting methods were created. Activity based cost management method, and value adding costs and product lifecycle analysis methods were formed (Hoskin & Macve, 1988). In 1981 strategic management accounting definition was introduced. Management accounting purpose became helping company's management to manage its strategies Oohnson ; Kaplan, 1987). Porter (1985) created value chain model. Also, at 1985, competitors' analysis has grown stronger, because of five competitive forces, PEST and SWOT methods (Porter, 1985).These methods allowed assessing, not only company's internal environment, but also to foresee performance risk factors in external environment, this way creating a competitive advantage. In 1987, customers' profitability analysis was discussed (AnandaraJan & Christopher, p an & Norton ( ) created a balanced scorecard system, which allowed company's management to transform objectives provided in strat egy, vision and mission into performance indicators, which allow assessing the success of mplementing competitive performance strategy. Darius Gliaubicas (2012 P. 4-26) 3. Origin and Managerial Controlling Practices of Management Accounting In the period preceding the Industrial Revolution, economic advancement predominantly occurred in the Middle and Far East (Chatfield 1977 ). Some of the oldest surviving business records dace back to the Chaldean-Babylonian, Assyrian and Sumerian civilizations. Various types of service businesses and small industries were established and the oldest known commercial documents date from 3500 BC (Chatfield 1977:5). In Babylonia formal legal codes made record keeping compulsory.The most famous is the Code of Hanunurabi, which required that an agent selling goods for a merchant should give the merchant a sealed memorandum quoting prices. All these records were kept on clay tablets (Chatfield 1977:5) In Egypt the introduction of papyrus as a writing su rface made writing less cumbersome and permitted a wider use of supporting documents. Despite the early progress, the development virtually stagnated for several thousand years. This might be ascribed to the inability to express goods in terms of a single substance (monetary unit) (Chatfield 1977:7) (M. shotterl 999. p . 244).Once of the oldest and largest surviving records of a system of responsibility accounting was maintained by Zenon. a manager of a private estate of the finance minister of Ptolemy II in 256 BC. Each of the supervisors of the areas of the estate had to render frequent accounts of all transactions. The accounts were rised and audited on a regular basis. This form of accounting system spread throughout the Mediterranean and the Middle East and was later adopted and modified by the Romans. The essential aim of this form of accounting system was the protection of the property of the owners (M . hotter 1999 p. 4)1. None of the above ancient forms of accounting provid ed any aid for decision-making or resembled cost accounting. Until the Industrial Revolution, records did not allow for separate costing by product lines and mad: no distinction between capital and revenue expenditure. This resulted in an inability to estimate the profitability of a product, a capital investment or an increased investment in labour (Chatfield 1977:11) The Industrial Revolution which gained momentum roughly between 1760 and 1830 in this period accounting historian place the exact time as the origin of management accounting is 1812 (H.T. Johnson and R. S. Kaplan, 1987) the industrial revolution can be ascribed to a vast number of reasons, but the most well known arc the technical inventions that reformed the manufacturing world. These include the steam engine by James Viratt in 1765, the spinning Jenny by James Hargreaves between 1764 and 1767 and Arkwright's spinning frame in 1768 (Ashton 1948) This period Britain was also associated with a sharp growth in the popula tion, a more extensive use of capital, and the conversion of rural into urban communities as well as a rise in new social classes (Ashton 1948 ).In the United States of America the effect of the industrial Revolution was not as marked and immediate as in the United Kingdom. Although it did have an indirect effect on the US economy. the factors that had the most remarkable effect were the corning of the railways and the telegraph around 1840 (Chandler 1977). After 1840 and especially trom 860 the railways and the telegraph revolutionized t traditional ways of production and distribution.Coal provided a cheap and flexible source of energy which enabled the railways to provide the fast, regular and dependable transportation so essential to high volumes of production and istribution (Chandler 1977:79). Technological innovation, the expanding income per capita as well as the rapid growth of the poralation increased the complexity of existing production and distribution processes and incr eased the volume and the speed of transactions.The existing market mechanism was often no longer able to co-ordinate these transactions effectively. According to Chandler (1977:484 ) created a need for administrative co-ordination. To address this need entrepreneur's large multi-unit organizations and appointed managers to administer them. (M . shotter 1999 P. 1 5) According to traditional history management accounting evolved from the techniques of cost accounting that were developed in England before and during the Industrial Revolution (M. shotter 1999 p 216).The need for cost accounting developed when the double-entry bookkeeping system was not able to provide owners with product costs for purposes of pricing, particularly in the engineering sector. As engineering firms grew more and more competitive, cost estimates were needed for bidding on special contracts for which no market prices existed (Chatfield 1977:159). At that stage manufacturers guarded their cost methods as indus trial ecrets and bookkeeping texts generally ignored the subject (Chatfield 1977:1 59 ).Edwards, et al. (1995 ) suggest that management accounting was purely concerned with making the best use of available resources within certain constraints. Management accounting was viewed as an independent variable†, which passively served the needs of the organization and neither neither shaped nor was shaped by the organization or society Support for their view can be found in the number of case studies of archival records of organizations that operated before and during the Industrial Revolution in the United Kingdom.In 1740 the accountant of the Melincryddan Smelting Works distinguished between variable and fixed cost while deciding on the most profitable location, whilst Cyfartha Iron Works was recharging production overheads to cost centers and writing off general overheads to the profit and loss account in the 1790s (Comes 1996:16). Walsh & Stewart (1993) suggest that they found evi dence of the implementation of accounting systems for purposes of managerial control in two separate studies, carried out before and during the Industrial Revolution.In their study of the operations of the New Mills Woollen Manufactory for the period 1681 to 1703, they ound evidence of costing for purposes of pricing as well as information to control the flow of material. At New Lanark Cotton Factory, which was studied from 1800 to 1812, they found a much more sophisticated system of control over not only materials but also over the laborers. Accounting was used for the purpose of measuring productivity as well as to control the behavior of laborers (Walsh & Stewart 1993:790).Edwards et at. (1995: 6) ascribe the difference between their view of the origin of management accounting and the other views mentioned below to the differences in environmental circumstances between countries. They contrast the long industrial history, steady rate ot economic development and relatively ample s upply of labour of the United Kingdom with the United States where industrial development started much later and industrialization took place more rapidly against a background of labour shortages.Edwards et at. (1995) are also of the opinion that it is unduly restrictive to equate the development of management accounting to the use of accounting information to control human activity. As discussed above, they advocate a much broader role for management accounting. M. shotter1999 . P217) Chandler (1977) disagrees with the aforementioned view of management accounting being an â€Å"independent variable† and suggests that it played an important role in the development of the giant firm.According to him modern cost accounting originated during the middle of the nineteenth century with the advent of the railways and later the chemical, steel and metal working industries in the United States of America. These organizations were growing in size and their processes were growing in com plexity, creating a need for cost information to determine prices and evaluate the performance of the businesses.He is of the opinion that management accounting did not merely arise because the growing organization needed it, but that it facilitated this growth by means of focusing attention on the advantages of buying internally rather than through the market. Chandler also suggests that management accounting was not merely applied for the purpose of product costing, but also to aid internal control. Williamson's (1975) transaction cost theory supports Chandler's view. He suggests that management accounting is a means of determining the prices of products in large corporations in the absence of a market system.The cost of co-ordination internal transactions by means of management accounting is lower than the cost incurred when entering into these transactions through the market, thus Justifying its existence. A study by Fleischman, Hoskin & Macve (1995)(cited on M. shotter1999) of the Boulton & Watt engineering practice during the beginning of the eighteenth century revealed that costing techniques to determine piece rates for laborers were ‘once-off exercises to establish fair prices, and thereafter only received sporadic attention.Based on these findings, they essentially agree with Chandler (1977), Williamson 1975) and Johnson and Kaplan (1987) that entrepreneurs did not really need cost accounting, as long as they were paying market prices for the output of each worker. Similarly, Fleischman et al. (1995: 171) agree that detailed attention to the efficiency and control of labour was only required when entrepreneurs took the manufacturing process out of the hands of contractors and brought the workforce under their direct control.To sum up all evolution of management we should analyses four stage as follows The demand for information for internal planning and control apparently arose in he first half of the 19th century when firms, such as textile mi lls and rail-roads, had to devise internal administrative procedures to coordinate the multiple processes involved in the pertormance ot the basic activity (the conversion ot raw materials into finished goods by textile mills, the transportation of passengers and freight by the railroads). In the first stage, management accounting is seen as a technical activity necessary for the pursuit of the organizational objectives while in the second stage it is seen as a management activity performing a staff role to support line management hrough the provision of information for planning and control. In the third and fourth stages management accounting is seen as an integral part of the management process With improved technology, information is available in real time to all levels of management.The focus, therefore, shifts from the provision of information to the use of the available resources to create value for all the stakeholders. Figure 1 shows four stages of management accounting evol ution and how each stage encapsulates the previous ones. 3. Reduction of waste of business resources 4. Creation of value through effective use of resources Source: IFAC, 1998: 6. imported from (Nelson Maina Waweru,2010 p . 167) Fig. 1 . The evolution of management accounting 4. Management Accounting Theories Regardless of how management accounting emerged, the economic framework played a central role in shaping it.Other subject areas, such as management science, organization theory and lately behavioral sciences were undoubtedly present, but economics and specially the marginal list principles of neoclassical economics, had the dominant influence in the last century. The evolution of management accounting in the last century can be also assessed on historical grounds. Figure 2 below shows our main theoretical frameworks that can be used to describe the development of management accounting. They are then discussed in the subsections that follow. 2 Management accounting development : theoretical tramework 4. 1 Old conventional wisdom. Traditional textbooks have a list of topics that, despite the differences in orientation, are common to all. It is agreed that the final developments in management accounting occurred in the early decades of the twentieth century to support the growth of multi-activity and diversified corporations such as Du Pont (Kaplan, 1982 and 1984; Scapens, 1985; Boritz, 1988; Johnson and Kaplan, 1987; Atkinson, 1989; and Puxty, 1993) cited on(Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) .This stage is based on the absolute truth approach and principles of management which were rooted in an engineering view. Giglioni and Bedeian (1974) cited on (Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) provide a good overview of the roots of management control issues that lie in early managerial thought. Emerson (1912)( cited on Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) may be credited with the first meaningful contribution to the development of 20th century management control theory, in ‘The Twelve Principles of Efficiency where he heavily stresses the importance of control.Church (1914) cited on (Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) also contributed to the development of early management control theory; for him one of five organic functions of administration was control, identified as the mechanism that coordinates all the other functions and in addition supervises their work. Fayol (1949) cited on (Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) identified control as one of the five functions of management, control being the verification of whether everything occurs in conformity with the plan adopted, the instructions issued and principles established.It is interesting to note that Lawson 1920) cited on (Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) wrote the first text devoted entirely to the subject of management control, while Urwick (1928) cited on (Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) became the first author to identify a set of five control principles: responsibility, evidence, uniformity, comparison and utility. One of the f irst empirical studies of corporate organization and control was performed by Holden, Fish and Smith (1941), where one of its conclusions was that control is a prime responsibility of top management.Historical studies have played a conspicuous role in management accounting in recent years. Both research and practice have been strongly influenced by Kaplan (1984) and Johnson and Kaplan (1987), cited on (Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) who call for more relevant product costing. As a precedent, Chandler (1962 and 1977) cited on (Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) showed the importance of cost and management control information to support the growth of large transportation, production and distribution enterprises during the perid of 1850-1925.Management accounting systems evolved in the late 1880s to provide information about internal transactions, and by mid 1920s they were being used for diverse activities like lanning, controlling, motivating, analyzing and evaluating (Boritz, 1988). Johnson (19 81 and 1983), Johnson and Kaplan (1987) and Lee (1987) cited on (Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) made a convincing case for the development of managerial accounting practices in the US. 4. 2 Agency theory. The irruption of economics in the field led academicians to work on very elegant Mathematical models.Agency theory and transaction costs are a refinement of the mathematical modeling based on economic concepts and theory. The agency theory assumes that there exists a contractual relationship between members of a firm. It recognizes the existence of two groups of people; principals or superiors and agents or subordinates. The principals will delegate decision making authority to the agents and expect them to perform certain functions in return for a reward.Both the principals and the agents are assumed to be rational economic persons motivated solely by self-interest but may differ with respect to preferences, beliefs and information densen and Meckling, 1976) cited on (Nelson Maina Waw eru, 2010). The principal/ agent relationship can exist throughout any organization and usually starts from the shareholder director nd ends with the supervisor-shop floor worker. In an organization context, which involves uncertainty and asymmetric information, the agent's actions may not always be directed to the best interests of the principal.Agents' pursuit of their self interest instead of those of the principal is what is called the agency problem densen and Meckling, 1976) cited on (Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) to counter this behavior, the principal may monitor the agents' performance through an accounting information system. The owner can also limit such aberrant behavior by incurring auditing, ccounting and monitoring costs and by establishing, also at a cost, an appropriate incentive scheme densen and Meckling, 1976). ited on (Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010) Agency theory is based on several assumptions: Individuals are assumed to be rational and to have unlimited computational ability. They can anticipate and assess the probability of all possible future contingencies. The contracts are assumed to be costless and accurately enforceable by courts. The contracts are expected to be comprehensive and complete in the sense that for each verifiable event, they specify the actions to be taken by the contracting parties. However, this assumption may not hold in most developing countries where Judicial systems still lack the necessary resources to act efficiently.Both principals and agents are motivated solely by self- interest. The agent is assumed to have private information to which the principal cannot gain access without cost. The agent is usually assumed to be work averse and risk adverse (Batman, 1990: 343) cited on (Nelson Maina Waweru, 2010). Furthermore, agency theory concentrates on problems encountered by the owner when the manager relies on asymmetric information to cheat and shrink (Mackintosh, 1994). Asymmetric information is not a one-way street a s is assumed by agency theory.Owners would also have access to private information, which they would use in negotiating contracts. However, according to Baiman(1990), the above criticisms are less compelling if we view the principal-agent model as a frame work for analyzing issues and highlighting problems which arise and must be considered in applying managerial accounting procedures to real world situations. Consequently, agency theory offers insights into some of the tough issues and difficult problems involved in he design of management accounting systems. . 3 Contingency theory. The contingent control literature is based on the premise that a correct match between contingent factors and a firm's control package will result in desired outcomes. Contingencytheory explains how an appropriate accounting information system can be designed to match the organization structure, technology, strategy and environment of the firm. It suggests that universal applications are inappropriate a nd a framework for analysis is developed to suggest alternative performance measures,